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29 April 2026, Volume 45 Issue 4 Previous Issue   
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Intelligent Traffic Infrastructure
Traffic & Transportation+Artificial Intelligence
Modern Traffic Equipment


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Intelligent Traffic Infrastructure

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Progressive Damage Test on Hangers of an Existing Decommissioned Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Arch Bridge LIU Junde1, DENG Zhengyang2, ZHU Shifeng3, ZHAO Wenhao4, LI Chengjun5, FAN Liang2 2026, 45(4): 1-8.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.01 Abstract ( )   PDF (4489KB) ( )   Taking a decommissioned highway concrete-filled steel tubular tied-arch bridge as the subject, the influence of hanger damage on cable force redistribution and the mechanical behavior of the main girder was systematically investigated through in-situ progressive damage tests and refined numerical simulations. The experimental results show that under localized most unfavorable load conditions, hanger damage causes cable force redistribution. The cable force in the damaged hanger drops sharply, while that in the adjacent hanger increases significantly (the influence is mainly confined to the adjacent second hanger, with negligible effects beyond the second hanger). Moreover, as the damage location approaches mid-span, the redistribution of cable forces becomes more concentrated in the adjacent hangers, exhibiting an approximately symmetric diffusion pattern. The maximum increment in main girder deflection is only 1 mm, indicating that hanger damage has a negligible effect on the stiffness of the main girder. The numerical simulation results reveal that after the fracture of an outer steel strand, the axial forces in the adjacent steel strands within the same layer increase sharply in an inverted “V” shape at the fracture location, while the axial forces in the inner steel strands rise overall. The cable force in the central steel strand increases by 20% ~ 29%, forming a load-bearing system dominated by the central steel strand. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Tunnel Stability Considering Mudstone Swelling and Softening due to Water Immersion LI Shougang， ZHANG Wei 2026, 45(4): 9-17.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.02 Abstract ( )   PDF (4620KB) ( )   As a type of weak rock mass with unique engineering properties, mudstone swells, softens and even disintegrates after absorbing water, resulting in a significant decrease in mechanical strength, which seriously affects the safety and stability of tunnel. Existing research on the stability of mudstone tunnels has ignored the redistribution of the water field of mudstone tunnels during the process of construction and operation and lacked consideration of the combined effects of swelling and softening of mudstone after water immersion on the stability of tunnels. Taking a certain under-construction tunnel of the Lanzhou-Hezuo Railway as the engineering background, a seepage-stress coupling model of mudstone tunnel was constructed by combining on-site moisture monitoring and lining disease investigation data. The distribution characteristics of the water field in the surrounding rock were analyzed, the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of the dynamic response of lining stress and the expansion of the plastic zone were revealed, and the influence and contribution of mudstone swelling and softening effects on tunnel displacement changes and overall stability were explored. The research conclusions can provide theoretical basis and method reference for revealing the deformation mechanism of mudstone tunnels and proposing technical countermeasures for prevention and control. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Damage and Fracture Process of Concrete under Cyclic Loading ZHENG Dan1, CHEN Wei1, ZHAO Bin2, LI Xinxin1 2026, 45(4): 18-28.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.03 Abstract ( )   PDF (4621KB) ( )   To investigate the crack propagation rule and failure mechanism of concrete under cyclic loading, digital image correlation (DIC) technology was employed to analyze the evolution process of the load-crack mouth opening displacement (P-CMOD) curve. The variation characteristics of the crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD), crack length (a) and the residual strain in the fracture process zone, over the number of cycles and the unloading position, were quantitatively analyzed. The research results indicate that under constant-amplitude cyclic loading, the evolution of CMOD exhibits a three-stage characteristic: rapid accumulation, linear growth, and instability leading to failure. The crack length (a) is highly correlated with the changes of CMOD. At a stress level of 0.4 Fmax, a exhibits linear slow increase and then stabilizes. With increasing stress levels, a undergoes rapid extension in the early stage, followed by a deceleration in the growth rate, where residual stress promotes stable crack propagation. Under envelope cyclic loading, the growth rate of a converges while the CMOD continues to extend, indicating a gradual increase in the width of the fracture process zone. The accumulation rate of residual strain increases significantly with the load level. At 0.6 Fmax, the strain growth rate is 2.6 times that at 0.4 Fmax, and the high unloading residual stress exacerbates strain concentration. Based on the segmented mechanical response and dynamic damage evolution mechanism, a P-CMOD curve model that could predict the crack growth rate, failure critical point and response under multiple loading conditions is established, which provides a basis for the fatigue damage assessment and life prediction of concrete structures. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Adhesion Performance and Micro-mechanisms of Asphalt-Antimony Tailings AggregateLI Sheng1, YANG Xi1, ZHONG Ming2, XIAO Han2 2026, 45(4): 29-37.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.04 Abstract ( )   PDF (7742KB) ( )   The chemical composition and surface morphology of antimony tailings were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to determine their main mineral components. Based on this, a simulation model of molecular dynamics (MD) was constructed to simulate the interfacial adhesion behaviors of antimony tailings, basalt aggregates, steel slag aggregates and asphalt. The adhesion properties of both matrix asphalt and SBS-modified asphalt were characterized by use of photoelectric colorimetry and contact angle test. A gray correlation analysis method was applied to verify the consistency between simulation results and macroscopic test results. The research results show that the interfacial energies of quartz, calcite, and asphalt in antimony tailings are -68.49 kcal/(mol·nm2) and -318.43 kcal/(mol·nm2), respectively. In the SBS-modified asphalt system, the adhesion rate of antimony tailings is 86.37% and the compatibility rate is 44.67%, whose values are between those of basalt (82.25%, 35.85%) and steel slag (94.8%, 52.36%). The adhesion rate of antimony tailings decreases to 78.84% after oxidation, with the change trend of matrix asphalt being consistent with that of SBS-modified asphalt. Gray correlation analysis reveals a high consistency between the results of adhesion quantification test and traditional immersion method (correlation degree >0.9), confirming the reliability of the macroscopic testing method. Antimony tailings possess asphalt adhesion properties comparable to commonly used aggregates, rendering their resource utilization in road engineering feasible. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Performance of Sandstone Asphalt Stabilized Macadam Mixed with Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement as Road Base Layer WAN Bing1, XIAO Shengcai1, XIONG Sui1, YANG Bo2, TANG Jiale2 2026, 45(4): 38-44.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.05 Abstract ( )   PDF (2670KB) ( )   In order to promote the development of green and low-carbon recycling technologies for waste materials in road construction, typical hard sandstone from Southwest China was taken as base layer aggregate. The high-temperature rutting resistance and low-temperature cracking resistance tests were conducted by adding RAP obtained from a highway surface layer. A study on the proportioning of recycled sandstone ATB-25 was conducted based on the balanced design method. The results show that the optimum asphalt-aggregate ratios for recycled sandstone ATB-25 with RAP contents of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% were 3.8%, 4.0%, 4.2%, 4.4%, 4.5%, and 4.6%, respectively. When the RAP content is increased from 0% to 20%, the dynamic stability of the sandstone ATB-25 is increased from 1 875 times/mm to 2 417 times/mm, with an approximate improvement of 28.9%. However, when the RAP content is continued to increase from 20% to 50%, the dynamic stability is gradually decreased to 1 917 times/mm. Meanwhile, to ensure the water stability of the recycled sandstone ATB-25, the immersion Marshall test and freeze-thaw splitting test was compared. It is revealed that by incorporating 2.30% of ordinary Portland cement by total aggregate mass as an anti-stripping agent to replace a portion of mineral powder, the water stability of recycled sandstone ATB-25 with RAP contents from 0% to 50% can be effectively ensured. Finally, through dynamic modulus tests at different temperatures and loading frequencies, the master curves of the dynamic modulus for recycled sandstone ATB-25 were established using the Sigmoidal function and Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation. When the RAP proportion was 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%, the corresponding dynamic moduli of recycled sandstone ATB-25 were 5 835, 7 103, 6 086, 5 749, 5 624, and 5 651 MPa, respectively. In summary, the results indicate that recycled sandstone ATB-25 with RAP contents from 10% to 20% exhibits satisfactory pavement performance. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Carbon-Constrained Multi-objective Collaborative Optimization in Railway Bridge Construction BAO Xueying, LI Fengxia, YANG Minmin, CAO Taiyao, LI Longbin 2026, 45(4): 45-53.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.06 Abstract ( )   PDF (1330KB) ( )   To alleviate the contradiction among the relatively high carbon emission levels, emission reduction costs and schedule during the railway bridge construction phase, a carbon-constrained multi-objective optimization (CCMO) model was proposed. The carbon footprint characteristics of each stage were analyzed quantitively by establishing the carbon emission calculation model for the railway bridge construction phase. Using material consumption, number of equipment shifts, and energy consumption as decision variables, a multi-objective optimization model encompassing carbon emissions, costs and duration was established. The Pareto frontier solution set was solved by the MOEA/D algorithm, and the optimal solution was selected by integrating the TOPSIS method based on subjective preference weights. Key parameters were identified through sensitivity analysis, and a case study of a mountainous railway bridge was taken for validation. The research results indicate that: ① The carbon emissions during the material production stage account for 79.01%, with steel and concrete contributing 64.30% and 25.50%, respectively. In the construction stage, direct emissions from mechanical equipment account for 63.57%, while the cumulative emissions from the superstructure, foundation, and substructure account for 96% of total emissions. ② By adjusting the material and energy consumption coefficients to 0.89 and 0.90 respectively, and increasing the equipment shift coefficient to 1.06, the optimal scheme can achieve a 19.3% reduction in carbon emissions, while also maintaining reasonable control over costs and construction duration. ③ Sensitivity analysis indicates that material consumption is the key control parameter, with a ±10% variation potentially causing an approximate fluctuation of ±8% in carbon emissions. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Carbon Emission Prediction of Traffic in the Upper Yangtze River Based on Lasso-GWO-RF Model JIAO Liudan, WANG Yijie, HUO Xiaosen, WU Liu 2026, 45(4): 54-60.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.07 Abstract ( )   PDF (2183KB) ( )   The upper reaches of the Yangtze River serve as a critical area for implementing Chinas “dual carbon” strategy and constructing the ecological barrier of the Yangtze River Economic Belt, whose carbon emission governance in the transportation sector plays a significant role in achieving the objective of “synergistic enhancement of pollution reduction and carbon reduction.” Based on data from Chongqing, Guizhou, Sichuan, and Yunnan provinces/municipalities from 2000 to 2021, Lasso regression was employed to address multicollinearity of the STIRPAT model, a carbon emission prediction model integrating the grey wolf optimizer algorithm with random forest (GWO-RF) was constructed, and multi-scenario analysis was carried out. The research results indicate that under the baseline and low-carbon scenarios, carbon emissions from the transportation sector in this region are projected to peak in 2032, with peaks of 109.19 Mt CO2 and 104.08Mt CO2, respectively. Under the high-carbon scenario, the peak is delayed to 2034, with the peak value rising to 117.51 Mt CO2. From 2022 to 2040, carbon emissions from transportation sector in this region generally follow an evolutionary path of “initial growth followed by peaking, then gradual stabilization and decline”. This achievement can provide methodological references and decision-making basis for accurate prediction of carbon emissions and design of peak-reaching pathways in cross-regional transportation sectors. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Traffic & Transportation+Artificial Intelligence

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Exploring Enhanced Traffic Signal Control Based on Improved PPO HUANG Deqi1, DONG Chunfa2，ZHAO Jun1，GUO Yanan2，CAO Chunmeng2 2026, 45(4): 61-68.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.08 Abstract ( )   PDF (2302KB) ( )   Aiming at the problems of low traffic efficiency and insufficient traffic signal control effect of the current urban traffic network, as well as the weak exploration ability of the deep reinforcement learning proximal policy optimization (PPO) algorithm, three kinds of PPO traffic signal control algorithms based on exploration capability enhancement were proposed, namely, PPO based on noise action network (NA-PPO), PPO based on action entropy reward attenuation (ER-PPO), and PPO based on state counting (SC-PPO). Firstly, traffic states, actions, and rewards were defined to maximize signal control effect. Secondly, a multi-agent traffic signal control system was constructed, and an asynchronous parallel multi-process parameter sharing training mechanism was used to accelerate the training speed. Finally, taking the traffic flow of some urban traffic networks in Nanyang City as an example, SUMO was used to carry out simulation experiments. The results show that compared to the PPO algorithm, the online learning control and non-online learning control of the three kinds of exploration enhanced PPO algorithms both reduce the vehicle queue length, driving time and waiting time, and the experiment results verify the effectiveness of the exploration enhancement. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Ramp Merging Strategy Based on Rule-Guided Multi-agent Reinforcement Learning ZHENG Jianhua, GAO Yunfei 2026, 45(4): 69-80.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.09 Abstract ( )   PDF (1778KB) ( )   The ramp merging problem in mixed traffic was transformed into a rule-based multi-agent reinforcement learning problem. By designing a framework that integrated rule constraints and learning capabilities, autonomous vehicles on ramps and main roads adapting to human driving behaviors in a coordinated manner were realized, thereby maximizing traffic efficiency. The main research contents were as follows: firstly, a multi-dimensional reward mechanism for a single agent was proposed, which built a comprehensive reward system including speed rewards, lane entry penalties, headway distance penalties and collision penalties. Through dynamic speed mapping, lane occupancy cost calculation, and dynamic safety distance assessment, a safety and efficiency constraint system was formed. Secondly, a regional reward mechanism for multi-agent coordination was designed, which constructed a regional reward model based on vehicle interaction relationships. By utilizing a dynamically topology-adaptive parameter sharing strategy and adjusting reward weights based on communication connection status, the collaborative efficiency of multi-agent systems was enhanced. Thirdly, the multi-agent adaptability of the PPO algorithm was improved by optimizing the core process of reinforcement learning and introducing a clipping objective function of interaction factors to improve training stability and convergence efficiency. Experiments show that the proposed framework outperforms multiple kinds of advanced methods in terms of merging success rate, collision rate and other indicators, providing a safe and efficient solution for ramp merging in mixed traffic scenarios. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Vehicle Collision Risks Assessment at Unsignalized Roundabouts Based on Safety Potential Field LI Li1，XIE Quan1，ZHU Jinyu1，WANG Runmin2，GONG Xianwu1 2026, 45(4): 81-88.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.10 Abstract ( )   PDF (1426KB) ( )   To address the issues of traffic conflict analysis methods using surrogate safety indicators in the evaluation of vehicle collision risk at unsignalized roundabouts such as difficult detection of conflict vehicle, difficult modeling of multi-vehicle conflicts and road boundary constraints, a vehicle collision risk assessment method based on safety potential field theory was proposed. Firstly, a classified detection method of conflict vehicles was designed to identify rear-end conflicts on circular lanes and lateral conflicts on entrances of the lanes by improving the time-to-collision (TTC) indicator. Then, based on the safety potential field theory, potential and kinetic fields were respectively constructed, aiming to impacts of road boundaries, lane markings and surrounding vehicles on the subject vehicle. Furthermore, based on the safety potential field resulting from the superposition of these factors, a collision risk assessment indicator, namely CPF (collision potential field), was proposed. Finally, the particle swarm optimization algorithm was applied to carry out parameter calibration of CPF indicator, based on real vehicle trajectories collected from an unsignalized roundabout. The applicability of the conflict vehicle detection method and the CPF indicator was verified from the perspectives such as conflict severity, conflict vehicle type and conflict event type. The results show that the proposed conflict vehicle detection method identifies 6568 pairs of conflict vehicles, which is more than 4097 pairs identified by the virtual lane method. The proposed method also shows higher sensitivity in detecting conflict events with different severities and improves the defect that the virtual lane method cannot identify conflict events at the entrance of circular lanes. The potential field exerted by lane markings, road boundaries, and surrounding vehicles, which is measured by the CPF indicator, can reflect the conditions in real driving scenarios. Compared to the traditional TTC indicator, the CPF indicator is more sensitive and accurate in reflecting the dynamic variation features in collision risk in specific scenarios, such as changes in the driving direction of conflicting vehicles, proximity of conflicting vehicles, and deceleration of the rear vehicle. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Electric Bus Charging Facility Layout and Scheduling Optimization Considering Deadhead Time FAN Zhiqiang1, LIANG Jiahui1, LI Shanshan2 2026, 45(4): 89-98.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.11 Abstract ( )   PDF (3470KB) ( )   Reducing the deadhead time of electric bus (EB) from terminals to charging stations can effectively reduce hidden costs such as additional driver staffing and improve charging efficiency. In light of this, firstly, the deadhead time was minimized based on the cost objectives of existing research, balancing both cost and efficiency requirements. Secondly, based on the analysis of the charging time characteristics of EB under slow and fast charging modes, two charging time slot parameters were set for slow and fast charging, addressing the shortcomings of existing studies that considered only a single charging method and treating it as an unbalanced assignment problem at the meanwhile. Then, by fully considering constraints such as uncertainty in vehicle speed and the latest charging time limit for vehicles, a joint optimization study on charging facility layout and scheduling was conducted, and a multi-objective optimization model was constructed. Finally, the genetic algorithm was improved with the first come first served (FCFS) strategy and the Metropolis criterion, which was applied to a case study to validate the effectiveness of the model and algorithm. The results show that considering only the cost objective causes the drawback of excessively long deadhead time, whereas the established multi-objective model can effectively reduce the maximum deadhead time per EB and improve charging efficiency. Shortening charging time slots can reduce the costs of EB charging facility layout and scheduling. Increasing EB driving speed can effectively reduce deadhead time. In the initial stage of bus system operation, a higher weight should be given to the cost objective to address the issue of financial constraints, while in the middle and later stages, a higher weight can be given to the deadhead time objective to improve charging efficiency. Compared to a single slow/fast charging method, considering both slow and fast charging methods simultaneously yields the best overall effect. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Airport Daily Passenger Volume Forecasting Based on MFE-Informer Module YANG Wendong, ZHAO Xiao 2026, 45(4): 99-106.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.12 Abstract ( )   PDF (1353KB) ( )   Aiming at the problem of insufficient utilization of multi-dimensional features of holiday in current daily passenger volume prediction models in the transportation sector, an MFE-Informer model that incorporated multi-dimensional feature enhancement (MFE) module was proposed, in which the information such as holiday type, duration, and surrounding time periods was mapped into multi-dimensional features. By integrating the MFE module with the multi-head attention layer, the proposed model could adaptively focus on feature variations of holidays, thereby enhancing its capability to model the impact of holidays and long-term trends. Taking the daily passenger volume data from a certain airport in 2019 as an example. The daily passenger valume forecasting was carried out. The research results show that compared to baseline models such as long short-term memory (LSTM) model, Informer and Informer with binary labels, the MFE-Informer model performs better in terms of evaluation metrics such as correlation coefficient (R2), mean squared error (EMS), mean absolute error (EMA), and root mean squared error (ERMS). Furthermore, three typical travel scenarios (Tomb-Sweeping Day, a certain 5-day period during peak season, and National Day holiday) are selected for validation. The MFE-Informer model maintains smaller prediction errors and faster trend response capability, which confirms the robustness of the proposed model across different travel patterns. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Collaborative Optimization of Stand Allocation and Towing Scheduling Based on Priority Sequence ZHANG Yifan，WANG Hongxin，LI Bingchao，LI Haifeng 2026, 45(4): 107-116.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.13 Abstract ( )   PDF (1891KB) ( )   The rapid development of the global air transport industry has made the contradiction between the continuous growth of flight volumes at hub airports and the lagging supply of near stands. Near stands are core scarce resources, and the conflict between the limited supply of near stands and the demand for aircraft parking urgently needs resolution. Towing scheduling, as a key measure for improving stand utilization rate, plays a vital role in alleviating resource constraints. With the primary objectives of enhancing the bridge utilization rate and reducing the cost of towing operations, dynamic and static constraints such as stand allocation restrictions and towing effectiveness were comprehensively considered. Integrating the improved genetic algorithm with Monte Carlo tree search, the temporal-spatial distribution graph of flights based on the clustering patterns of long-stay flights was designed to rapidly solve optimal single-stand allocation schemes. Furthermore, a collaborative decision-making model for stand allocation and towing scheduling based on stand priority sequences was constructed. Finally, historical data from Beijing Daxing International Airport was used for case verification. The results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm increases the bridge rate by 3.3% on average and reduces overall towing operations by approximately 22.7%, compared to current solutions. The sequence reuse strategy reduces the solving time to 11% of conventional iterations, while ensuring superior performance metrics. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Path Tracking Control of Intelligent Vehicle Based on Adaptive Fuzzy MPC ZHANG Ping, WANG Yanlong, CHEN Zhicheng, YAN Jiacheng, WANG Jianfeng 2026, 45(4): 117-126.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.14 Abstract ( )   PDF (2773KB) ( )   In the context of intelligent vehicle path tracking, the model predictive control (MPC) method with a fixed prediction time domain often suffers from poor local path tracking accuracy and stability. To tackle these issues, an adaptive fuzzy model predictive control (AFMPC) algorithm was designed, which optimized and adjusted the prediction step size of the controller online according to the longitudinal vehicle speed and the curvature of the reference path. Simulink/CarSim were used to conduct a double lane change test at high, medium, and low speeds. The results show that the AFMPC controller achieves overall better path-tracking accuracy than the fixed-parameter MPC. Compared with the optimal fixed-parameter controller under each operating condition, its lateral average error is significantly reduced by 12.25% in the low-speed scenario, remains nearly unchanged (a 0.37% decrease) in the high-speed scenario, and is comparable to that of the optimal fixed-parameter MPC in the medium-speed scenario. Meanwhile, the vehicle yaw rate and centroid sideslip angle maintain a level comparable to those of the fixed-parameter MPC under all three operating conditions. Therefore, adjusting the prediction horizon in real-time according to changes in road and vehicle conditions is beneficial for improving the driving accuracy and stability of intelligent vehicles. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Structural Response of the Bow of the Ship during Ice Collisions in the Liaodong Bay Ice Period ZHAO Qiang, ZHANG Shiwei , CHEN Wei, LIAO Xun 2026, 45(4): 127-134.  DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-0696.2026.04.15 Abstract ( )   PDF (9883KB) ( )   Liaodong Bay is enclosed on three sides by land, with strong closure of the sea area, poor seawater exchange and weak fluidity, which causes the sea ice in this region to easily accumulate and form considerable thickness in winter, making it as one of the regions with the highest risk of sea ice disasters in northern China. The potential hazards posed by ice conditions directly threaten the navigation safety of non-icebreaking vessels. To address the safety needs of vessels navigating under ice conditions in this sea area, the numerical simulation of the collision process between a 38,000-ton bulk carrier and sea ice was conducted by the nonlinear finite element method, taking into account the characteristics of sea ice, the thickness and strength of ship steel. In the simulation, two key variables, namely ship navigation speed and ice thickness, were focused, and their impact rules on the collision damage of the ships bow structure, collision force and energy absorption were analyzed. The simulation results indicate that during the ship-ice collision process, collision force, energy absorption, and structural damage stress of the ship increase with the increase of navigation speed and ice thickness. When the ice thickness is 0.2 m, no plastic deformation occurs in the ships bow structure under the working conditions at the navigation speed of 3 knots, 4 knots and 5 knots, allowing for safe navigation. However, when the ice thickness exceeds 0.3 m, varying degrees of plastic deformation in the bow structure are observed. References | Related Articles | Metrics